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Age 2-7 Children become more sophisticated in their use of symbolic thought but are not yet able to use logic Advances: -Symbolic function (ability to use symbols or mental representations such as words, numbers, or images, to which a person has attached meaning) (deferred imitation, pretend play, language) -Symbolic development and spatial thinking (reliably grasp the relationship between pictures, maps or scale models and the objects they represent) (however, as per dual representation hypothesis, children under the age of 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time which they cannot do yet) -Causality (understand cause and effect but achieve this reasoning through transduction or mentally linking phenomena (regardless of logic). Ability to use psychological, social-conventional, biological reasoning and logic but only in in familiar situations that they understand already) -Understan...

Infant gradually becomes able to organize activities in relation to the environment through sensory and motor activity (Coordinate input from senses and organize activities in relation to environment) Processes of (i) organization (ii) adaptation and (iii) equilibriation (cause and effect keep reversing) Schemes: organized patterns of behavior used in particular situations Circular reactions: an infant learns to reproduce pleasurable or interesting events originally discovered by chance SUBSTAGE 1 0-1 month -neonates begin to exercise some control over their inborn reflexes, engaging in a behavior even when its normal stimulant is not present -infants modify and extend the scheme for sucking SUBSTAGE 2 1-4 months -babies learn to repeat a pleasant bodily sensation first achieved by chance - primary circular reaction -turn toward sounds (coordinate vision and hearing) SUBSTAGE 3 4-8 months (coincides with new interest in manipulating objects and learning about their ...

1. Orientation towards punishment and obedience: What will happen to me? 2. Instrumental purpose of exchange: You scratch my back; I'll scratch yours 3. Maintaining mutual relations, approval of others: "Golden rule" (Am I a good boy or good girl?) 4. Social concern and conscience: What if everyone did it? 5. Morality of contract, individual rights and democratically accepted law 6: Morality of universal ethical principles

MIDLIFE CRISIS -crisis of identity -second adolescence -brought on by awareness of mortality -not universal -"stressful life period precipitated by the review and reevaluation of one's past, typically occurring in the early to middle forties" -midlife is just one of life's transitions, a transition typically involving an introspective review and reappraisal of values and priorities  (midlife review), the simultaneous managing of gains and losses and recognition of the finitude of life. -ego-resiliency helps (ability to adapt flexibly and resourcefully to potential sources of stress) IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT -although main concern of adolescence, identity continues to develop - is a central issue of adulthood also -midlife is a time of stock-taking w.r.t. roles and relationships, it may bring to the surface unresolved identity issues SOCIAL CONVOY THEORY (Kahn and Antonucci) Proposition : People move through life surrounded by social convoys - circles of c...

IDENTITY: -coherent conception of the self -includes goals, values and beliefs to which the person is solidly committed IDENTITY VS IDENTITY CONFUSION: -Erikson's 5th stage -the adolescent seeks to develop coherent sense of self -including the role he/she is to play in society - - identity vs role  confusion - ascertain and organize their abilities, needs, interests and desires so they can be expressed in a social context IDENTITY CONFUSION: -normal to a certain degree -accounts for chaotic adolescent behavior and teenagers' painful self-consciousness -cliquishness and intolerance of differences are defences against identity confusion -regression into childishness to avoid resolving conflicts -impulsively commit themselves to poorly thought-out courses of action THREE MAJOR ISSUES: -choice of occupation -adoption of values to believe in and live by -development of a satisfying sexual identity * Find a way to use skills  learned - industry vs inferiority...

Geneotype: genetic makeup containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics Phenotype: observable characteristics Mutations: permanent alteration in genes or chromosomes that may produce harmful characteristics (at least 1.6 harmful mutation per person in each generation) Many defects are hereditary and people pass them on  Mutation leads to abnormalities in genes/chromosomes (can occur spontaneously or be induced by environmental hazards like radiation) Many disorders are a result of inherited disposition and environmental factors before and/or after birth - Ex: ADHD is a behavioral disorder transmitted multifactorially -> combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits Not all abnormalities are visible at birth: Sachs - not visible until 6 months Sickle cell anaemia -"- Cystic fibrosis - not seen until age 4 Glaucoma - not seen until middle age Huntington's disease -"- 1 in every 156 children in Western co...

learning is  long lasting change in behavior based on experience or adaptation to environment BEHAVIORISM: mechanistic theory behaviorists look for events that determine whether or not a particular behavior will be repeated focus on associative learning through operant and classical conditioning classical conditioning is a natural form of learning that occurs even without intervention. by learning what events go together, children can anticipate what is going to happen and this makes their world a more orderly, predictable place John Watson's classical conditioning on Little Albert, an 11month baby - taught him to fear furry white objects operant conditioning -  individual learns from consequences of operating on the environment;  involves voluntary behavior -  an organism will repeat a response that has been reinforced and suppress a response that has been punished reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated  (positive re...

Emphasis on mental processes Clinical method - combined observation with flexible questioning Comprehensive theory of cognitive development Organization - tendency to create increasingly complex cognitive structures or schemes (Systems of knowledge or ways of thinking that incorporate more and more accurate images of reality) Adaptation - how children handle new information in light of what they already know; involving assimilation (taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures) and accommodation (changing one's cognitive structures to include the new information);  the shift from one to the other is dictated by equilibriation (constant striving for for a stable balance or equilibrium)

Contextual/Sociocultural Central focus is social, cultural and historical complex Stresses on child's active engagement with environment, like Piaget Cognitive growth is a collaborative process Child acquires cognitive skills through social interaction Shared activities enable kids to internalize society's ways of thinking and behaving Adults must help direct and organize child's behavior Effective for helping child cross the zdp (Zone of Proximal Distance) that is the difference between what a child can do alone and what he can do with help In the course of collaboration, responsibility for directing and monitoring learning gradually shifts to child Ex: learning how to float in water Scaffolding - temporary support that parents, teachers or others give a child to master a task until the child can do it alone implications for education and cognitive testing - focus on a child's potential as opposed to what he has already learned

1) SIGMUND FREUD - Psychosexual Development people are born with biological drives that must be redirected so as to live in society personality is formed in childhood, as children deal with unconscious conflicts between these inborn urges and the requirements of civil life 5 stages, based on maturation: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital most susceptible to fixation during oral, anal and phallic stage 3 hypothetical parts of personality: id, ego and superego id functions on pleasure principle; ego - reality principle *clientele of upper-middle-class adults, mostly female does not take into account other and later influences on personality 2) ERIK ERIKSON - Psychosocial Development "crisis" between one positive and negative tendency  until 12-18 months of age - basic trust  vs mistrust  - value learned: hope whether the world is safe or not 12-18 months to 3 years - autonomy vs  shame or doubt  - will balance between independence...

THANK YOU AKSHIKA!!!!! Psychology Syllabus for mid semesters This is complicated and will require you to sit with your book and mark the portions. I’ve tried to put it as simply as possible so try to figure it out by yourself. If you all still have problems, you can ask me. Nothing other than these portions will come. Page numbers                                                   Description 7-22            All of Chapter 1 29- 37         Theoretical perspectives – Erickson, Piaget 42-43         Vygotsky’s theory 63-67         Fertilization 69- 74         Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities till th...

1. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - scientific study of change and stability throughout human lifespan * Darwin's baby biographies (1877) - developmental nature of Doddy's sensory, cognitive and emotional behavior * Nature vs Nurture; also, emphasis on meeting children's developmental needs * Adolescence and aging - new fields of study added 2. LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT - concept of development as a lifelong process which can be studied scientifically * grew out of research designed to follow children through adulthood * Stanford Studies of Gifted Children * study of lifespan development is interdisciplinary - psychology, psychiatry, sociology, anthropology, biology, genetics, family science, education, history, philosophy, medicine 3. GOALS of studying human development - describe, explain, predict, modify behavior 4. QUANTITATIVE change - height, weight, size of vocabulary 5. QUALITATIVE change - nonverbal to verbal communication 6. STABILITY - constancy, usually in consci...